Author: Heather Voight

How Ancient Egyptians Viewed Their Goddesses

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Egyptian goddesses portrayed women’s passive role in the community. Each goddess, regardless of her popularity or the power she sometimes exerted, reinforced the Egyptian female ideal who bore children and obeyed her husband. One goddess who fit the description of the ideal woman was Isis. The myth of Isis says that when the god Seth betrayed her husband Osiris and tore him to pieces, Isis and sister Nephthys gathered his remains and made Osiris whole again. Isis conceived a son named Horus with the resurrected Osiris. As a mother and a wife, Isis was particularly important to women. Isis was frequently invoked to protect children because she used her magical powers to hide her newborn son Horus in the marsh away from the jealous Seth. Isis and Horus were also frequently called upon to ensure a safe delivery for a woman in labor. Prayers and spells such as “For speeding up the child-birth of Isis” could be recited during a difficult delivery. Clearly Isis must have possessed great magical powers to resurrect her husband and protect her child, yet she still conformed to the ancient Egyptian feminine ideal. 

 

Although occasionally less benevolent than Isis, the goddess Hathor also acted the part of the model Egyptian woman. Hathor was the goddess of love and music who was often depicted as a cow because of her role as a nurturer and provider. The importance of Hathor was emphasized by her identification with royalty. The pharaoh could be identified with many gods, but he was often referred to as the son of the sun-god Re. As his wife, the queen wore the sun disc and horns of Hathor, who was the daughter of Re. Though the queen was the woman most directly associated with Hathor, ordinary people could call on Hathor for protection. One mother invoked Hathor to be present at a birth: “Rejoicing, rejoicing in heaven, in heaven! Birth giving is accelerated! Come to me, Hathor, in my fine pavilion, in this happy hour.” Hathor’s powers, like those of Isis, were used to protect women. Although these powers were vast, they never directly impacted the male worlds of politics and war. 

   

The ancient Egyptians viewed many of their goddesses as potentially good as well as potentially evil. Hathor could be either benevolent or destructive. The popularity of the nurturing version of Hathor reflected society’s idealized woman, but the Egyptians realized that even the nurturing mother could become violent. Goddesses were not always cast in traditionally feminine roles.  Hathor’s destructive counterpart was Sekhmet, the lion-headed goddess of war and sickness. When the god Re wished to destroy mankind he sent Sekhmet to carry out his wish. He later changed his mind but Sekhmet refused to stop, relishing the destruction she was causing. Re checked Sekhmet by getting her drunk and mankind was saved. Significantly, a male god stops Sekhmet’s plans, suggesting that regardless of her powers, no woman can override the wishes of a man.   

Nefertiti: Powerful Queen of Egypt

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When Akhenaten, (also known as Amenhotep IV) came to the throne in 1353 B.C., he and Nefertiti possessed power and wealth which equaled that of Akhenaten’s parents. Like his father, Akhenaten gave his wife more authority than most Egyptian queens.

 

By virtue of her physical appearance, Nefertiti gained her husband’s admiration and, through him, greater influence. Nefertiti’s literate contemporaries failed to comment on her appearance, but the meaning of her name as well as Akhenaten’s obvious devotion to her confirm that she possessed unparalleled beauty. Her beauty was acknowledged during her lifetime through her name, which means “A Beautiful Woman has Come.” The emphasis which Akhenaten placed on her beauty gave Nefertiti a unique role in public life which she later used to gain religious and political power. 

 

Akhenaten eliminated the Egyptian the other Egyptian gods and goddesses and commanded that the people worship only the sun god Aten. Since the female goddesses were no longer worshiped, the country had no female idol for its women to emulate or goddess to ensure the country’s prosperity. Nefertiti’s beauty, however, provided a solution. In the absence of female goddesses, the queen’s role took on a special significance. The king and queen formed a semi-divine triad with Aten like that of the creator god, his son, and his wife Tefnut. Tradition dictated that the pharaoh would be semi-divine, but Nefertiti’s beauty and Akhenaten’s devotion to her ensured her goddess-like status as well. In fact, Pharaoh Akhenaten and his consort were so god-like that they determined how the Aten was to be worshiped. A study of the ancient illustrations of Nefertiti and Akhenaten reveals that only they could worship the Aten directly and their subjects worshiped their god through the royal couple. Prayers from commoners and even officials to the Aten were addressed to the king and queen. For example, a burial petition of temple official named Panehesy requested the following from Nefertiti: “‘May she grant the entrance of favor and the exit of love, and a happy recollection in the presence of the king, and that thy name be welcome in the mouth of the companions.’” Nefertiti’s beauty led to Akhenaten’s devotion to her, and that devotion gave her power in the Aten religion.

 

Nefertiti attained other privileges in the state religion. Traditionally, women could serve as priestesses to female goddesses, but only male pharaohs could make offerings to the gods. Nefertiti, however, performed the religious duties from which other queens were barred. The Aten’s temple in Amarna holds traditional scenes of the king offering to the god, yet in one building the queen raises her hands in offering with only her eldest daughter in attendance. The act of offering to the Aten was an honor, but Egyptologists believe that Nefertiti may have presided over religious ceremonies as well. Each day at Amarna three ceremonies were held for the Aten at sunrise, noon, and at sunset. Nefertiti likely performed the sunset ceremony, reciting the Hymn to the Aten which her husband composed. The religious power granted to Nefertiti came as a result of her goddess-like status.

 

As her reign continued, Nefertiti used her beauty to achieve political power as well as religious power. Several ancient stelae depict Nefertiti performing a typically kingly act—slaying Egypt’s enemies. In one scene, Nefertiti wears only a long skirt and a blue crown while a female enemy kneels beneath her raised right arm. Nefertiti dons a king’s attire of skirt and a version of the king’s blue war crown. The artisans’ portrayals of Nefertiti in these smiting scenes suggest that she acquired great political influence. Nefertiti’s power undoubtedly came from her close relationship with her husband. These works must have received his approval. In his devotion to her beauty and his need for a female goddess, Akhenaten enhanced her political power.   

 

Growing Up Mayan

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Mayan children grew up with parents who wanted their early childhood years to be carefree. Children lived with their extended families in nalil, which were clusters of huts. In this environment, they were surrounded by adults and cousins of various ages.

In the average Mayan family, older family members soon became teachers to the children in the nalil. Most importantly, children were taught respect for their elders. Girls and boys learned the skills they needed to be successful in their culture. A boy’s father and other male family members showed him how to fish and hunt. If a hut needed to be built or a canoe repaired, the boy participated and learned another valuable skill. Sons of craftsmen learned their trade from their father.

Like many other ancient cultures, Mayan girls learned skills that differed greatly from boys. Girls were taught how to cook, weave, and perform other household tasks. Girls did learn some tasks outside the home, however. For example, they were expected to learn how to barter at the local market.

Both girls and boys were taught the Mayan religious traditions. Priests instructed children about the various gods. After a basic introduction to their religious traditions, priests also taught children how to perform ceremonial dances.

Children of nobles received more intellectual instruction. They studied astronomy and learned to read the hieroglyphs. Sports were considered important for boys to master. Regardless of their social status, boys and girls were taught separately from one another until they knew their duties well enough to marry.

The Poetry of Phillis Wheatley

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African-American poet Phillis Wheatley was influenced by another poet of the eighteenth century, and her own writing influences readers today. Wheatley read extensively from the work of Alexander Pope, who translated Homer and was a popular English poet. Imitating Pope’s style, Wheatley uses Greek and Roman mythology in many of her poems. The muse, or spirit which is supposed to guide the poet, appears often in her work. Wheatley’s poems are widely criticized for their failure to condemn slavery, but her writings are still influential. She is America’s first African-American and second female poet. Phillis Wheatley inspires both African-Americans and women today through her proven survival in a predominately white, male-dominated society.

Although she never condemns slavery, and is sometimes accused of advocating for it, Phillis Wheatley’s poems demonstrate her belief in her race’s potential. In “On Being Brought from Africa to America,” she writes that her race “may be refined and join the angelic train.” By the word refined she means not only that slaves can enter heaven as whites can, but also that they have the capacity to learn. Slaves can only become educated with the help of God, and the theme of faith also appears in this poem. Wheatley’s devotion to God is evident. She became a Christian after coming to America and expresses her joy at finding God, “once I redemption neither saw nor knew.” She rejoices in discovering her faith, believing that God views her race as equal to whites.

Phillis Wheatley’s thankfulness at being brought to America is unusual for someone in slavery. Her tone, however, is triumphant, since she believes she will go to heaven once the troubles of life are over. America is the land that introduced her to this belief so she expresses gratitude. She writes, “T'was mercy brought me from my Pagan Land.” Although Wheatley is conveying the image of the contented slave, she does so not because she is happy to be considered inferior to whites, but because slavery brought her to God.

Libraries in Early America

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Today’s Americans take the ability to freely check out books and other materials from their local libraries for granted. The opportunity for the average person to borrow books did not exist in America, however, until Benjamin Franklin suggested it to a group of his friends. In the eighteenth century, private libraries were common among wealthy people and churches sometimes had their own libraries. Franklin’s idea of a subscription library, however, was unique.

Since his club of local tradesmen was already holding regular meetings, Franklin suggested that they each bring books to the meetings so members could share. Although members brought books in, Franklin soon discovered that money was needed to supervise and maintain the collection. He tried to get subscribers from the club and elsewhere to pay a fee for the right to borrow from the collection, but there were few literate people in eighteenth century Philadelphia. The subscribers did raise enough money to hire a librarian, who kept the library open from two to three on Wednesdays and from ten to four on Saturdays. The fees also helped the library buy books from London on topics such as history, science, and politics. Anyone could look at the books in the library, but only subscribers could check them out.

Eventually subscription libraries appeared in all the American colonies. Franklin stated, “These libraries have improved the general conversation of the Americans, and made the common tradesmen and farmers as intelligent as most gentlemen from other countries.” Unfortunately, America’s libraries are currently suffering from budget cuts which threaten the services they provide as well as the existence of the libraries themselves. Americans must work to protect these educational institutions that students and others depend on for free access to knowledge.

Learning to Read and Write as a Slave

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Learning to read and write was forbidden to many slave children. Slave masters feared young slaves would become increasingly unhappy with their position in society if they realized they were able to learn as well as white children.

Some slaves did learn to read and write, however. A few learned from their masters because the masters believed reading the Bible was important for all Christians, including their slaves. Other slaves learned because it was convenient for their masters to have intelligent slaves. For example, one doctor taught his slave to write so the slave could help him keep records of his patients. Frederick Douglass was initially taught to read by his mistress, who then stopped teaching him because it angered her husband.

Even when help from the master or mistress of the house was not available, slaves found other ways to learn. For example, when Douglass’s mistress stopped teaching him, he found white neighborhood boys who gave him lessons. He snuck bread out of the house when he was sent on an errand, and traded the bread for lessons from the other boys. Learning to write was a bit trickier for Douglass, since his mistress’s lessons had not extended beyond reading. He managed to copy a few letters that he saw at the shipyard in a notebook, however. He convinced other boys to unknowingly teach him even more letters. As he writes in his autobiography, “when I met with any boy who I knew could write, I would tell him I could write as well as he. The next word would be, ‘I don’t believe you. Let me see you try it.’ I would then make the letters which I had been so fortunate as to learn, and ask him to beat that.” Eventually Douglass learned to write with the help of these children.

The kind of determination Douglass and other slaves showed toward learning resulted in about 5% of the 1860 enslaved population becoming literate. The actual number is unknown because some slaves who may have been able to read might have denied it because they did not want their masters to find out.    

    

    

Growing Up in Slavery

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Slave children took on adult roles and had experiences that today’s children could never imagine. Five-year-old slave children might work in the tobacco fields while others picked cotton and cleared ditches. Food rations from masters increased as children grew into full-time workers. As a result, their parents often pushed them into work earlier for the benefit of the family.

Children also faced the constant possibility that they could be separated from their parents. Slaves could be sold to other masters or worked to death. The memories of these separations haunted slaves even after they were freed. Slave Charles Ball was separated from his mother at age five. Fifty years later he remembered her pleadings with the slave owners and said that the “terrors of the scene return to him with painful vividness.”

Some slave children were spared separation from their families because members of the master’s family became attached to them as childhood playmates. Other slaves benefited from having white fathers. Slave James Rapier was born to a black mother and a white owner/father in 1839. Rapier’s father provided him with a college education and openly acknowledged James as his son.

When aid from outside the slave quarters could not be found, slave families and the larger slave community seldom failed to help anyone in need. For example, Mingo White helped his mother spin thread in the evenings so she would not be whipped for not finishing her heavy workload. For those who had no blood relations, the slave community became a substitute family. The slave community felt responsible for all its members, not just blood relatives. Slave children were taught to address all older slave men and women with kin titles like mother or aunt to prepare them in case a sale or death separated them from their parents. Even in the absence of parents, slave children would not be abandoned by the adult slaves who were left behind.

Limited Liberty for Women after the American Revolution

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The American Revolution forced women to take on new roles. Women participated in every aspect of the Revolution. On the home front, women boycotted British goods and in Middletown, Massachusetts women wove 20,522 yards of cloth to avoid buying British fabric. The boycotts’ success depended on women who made decisions about what items to produce or what material to buy. Women also aided men in the battlefields. Soldier’s wives cooked, did laundry, and nursed for the army as they followed their husbands. Although these duties allowed them to contribute to the Revolution only with traditional “women’s work,” other women took on jobs that were considered traditionally male. Several accounts exist of women who fired cannons in the Revolution. Soldier Joseph Plumb remembered seeing a woman helping her husband load a cannon during the battle of Monmouth. Through activities like firing cannons and helping men in battle, women in the American Revolution stepped outside of their usual roles of household management and child care.

Despite their contributions during the war, women were still not viewed as equal to men. When Thomas Jefferson stated that “all men are created equal,” his words were understood to apply only to men. Property ownership and divorce remained difficult for women to get after the Revolution. Though unmarried women could own property, husbands took control of their wives’ property. Divorce was rarely an option for post-Revolutionary women even if they were abused by their husbands. The rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness promised in the Declaration of Independence were not granted to women.

The failure of the American Revolution to grant basic rights to women was not corrected in the constitution that was formed after the fighting stopped. Since a woman’s role in the eighteenth century centered around household management and childbearing, the founding fathers never considered women’s rights. Some women, like Abigail Adams, challenged men’s tendency to ignore the rights of women. Abigail wrote to her husband John Adams when the constitution was being formed, “in the new code of laws which I suppose it will be necessary for you to make, I desire that you would remember the ladies and be more generous and favorable to them than your ancestors.” Despite Abigail’s request, the original constitution never provided women with equal rights. Women not only did not receive protection from abusive husbands but also could not vote until the nineteenth amendment to the U.S. Constitution was passed in 1920. The position of women in American society did not change significantly until the twentieth century.  

 

 

 

Benjamin Franklin: Teenage Author

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At the age of twelve, Benjamin worked as an apprentice at his brother James’s print shop. Although his brother expected Benjamin to be his gopher and do only grunt work, Benjamin had other ideas. Late at night Ben studied the writing of the British essayist Addison and dreamed of becoming a writer. Despite James’s dislike of his brother’s literary ambitions, his newspaper named the Courant sometimes needed an extra contributor. Ben first wrote a few poems related to the news, including one about pirates. Although he later pronounced these early efforts as “wretched stuff,” some of James’s companions thought young Ben had talent. Their praise aggravated James, so Ben knew if he was going to contribute to the paper in the future, he would have to write under a different name.

By age sixteen, Ben was still working on his writing skills. At the same time, James found himself in a dispute with other competing papers. As a result, James was thrilled to discover an anonymous letter left under the print shop door one day. In the letter, a widow named Silence Dogood offered to write a column for the paper. Impressed with her wit and needing content for his paper, James published the first of fifteen essays by Ms. Dogood. He had no idea that Silence Dogood was the pen name for his brother Ben.

The Dogood essays covered a variety of topics. Many showed evidence of what are now cherished American values. For example, when James was jailed because of  the Courant’s outspokenness, Ms. Dogood wrote, “Without freedom of thought there can be no such thing as wisdom, and no such thing as public liberty without freedom of speech.”  The essays also strongly recommended a separation between church and state. Ms. Dogood wrote, “The most dangerous hypocrite in a Commonwealth is one who leaves the gospel for the sake of the law. A man compounded of law and gospel is able to cheat a whole country with his religion and then destroy them under the color of law.”

Eventually, James began to suspect the true author of the essays and Ben quit writing them. Once his identity was revealed, James’s friends showered Ben with praise. Encouraged, Ben would continue to write long after he left his brother’s print shop.