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Joan of Arc: Teenage Warrior and Saint

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Joan of Arc was still a teenager when she appealed to her local lord to meet with Charles and fight to put him on the French throne. The lord didn’t decide to help Joan right away. Eventually, however, he gave in and sent Joan to see the Dauphin Charles. When she finally met Charles, she told him, “I bring you news from God, that our Lord will give you back your kingdom, bringing you to be crowned at Rheims, and driving out your enemies…Do you set me bravely to work, and I will raise the siege of Orleans.” Charles had her tested by churchmen to decide if her voices were real and if she could really help him take the throne. She convinced the priests that her instructions came from God, and Charles agreed to prepare Joan for battle. Once again, Joan found herself in a position that few medieval women ever had—leader of an army.

As Joan got ready for battle, she wore men’s clothes and was fitted for a suit of armor. She didn’t care if people gossiped about the way she dressed because even as a child she did what she thought was right. Now she believed the right thing was to help the French city of Orleans, which was surrounded by English troops.

She marched to Orleans with a force of 4,000 men. Though others thought her strange, her troops respected her because she traveled for miles with them and never complained. She arrived with her troops in April 1429. She met with Count Jean de Dunois, the defender of Orleans. Together, they won small skirmishes with the English outside the city before attacking English forces that surrounded Orleans. Though wounded by an arrow, Joan continued to urge her troops on. She shouted to them “Courage! Do not fall back: in a little the place will be yours.” Once again she was correct and English forces marched away from the city.

After a few more French victories, Joan accompanied Charles to Rheims, the city where French kings were crowned. On July 17, 1429, with Joan at his side, Charles VII became king of France. It was a triumphant moment for Joan, whose voices proved to be correct; however, she desired to drive the English out of France completely. She disagreed with Charles that English allies, the Burgundians, could be trusted to make peace. She led her men to an area around Paris, which was held by the English. Although she managed to convince some of the townspeople to pledge their loyalty to Charles, the voices that had always promised good things now warned her that she would be captured.

While trying to attack another city near Paris, Joan was taken prisoner by the Burgundians. After spending months in prison, the Burgundians sent Joan to the English for her trial. The churchmen conducting the trial were sympathetic to the English and did not want Joan to go free so she could inspire her countrymen to fight again. They accused her of being a heretic, which meant that her religious beliefs went against the wishes of the church. Joan was convicted and sentenced to be burned in the marketplace in the town of Rouen. When Joan of Arc died, a bystander correctly observed, “we are lost; we have burned a saint.”

The Making of a Warrior: The Childhood of Joan of Arc

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When most historians write about Joan of Arc, they tell us about her achievements, but don’t focus much on her childhood. Yet her childhood experiences contributed to the brave warrior she later became.

Joan was born around January 1412 to a farmer and his wife in northeastern France. Both of Joan’s parents, Jacques and Isabelle, earned the respect of the village of Domremy. Joan’s father was the local sergeant with a reputation for fairness. Villagers admired Isabelle because she completed a religious pilgrimage to Rome. Bad roads and bands of robbers made traveling in the Middle Ages dangerous for anyone, but especially for women. Considering her reputation, it is not surprising that Isabelle raised at least one adventurous daughter.

Most children during the Middle Ages did not go to school. As a farmer’s daughter, Joan learned to spin wool and do household chores from her mother. Sometimes she helped her father with the livestock. The most important lessons Joan learned were her prayers. She later said, “From my mother I learned ‘Our Father,’ ‘Hail Mary,’ and ‘I believe.’ And my teaching in my faith I had from her and no one else.”

The religious instruction she received from her mother made a great impact on Joan. Other children in the village played games when they finished their chores, but Joan usually went to church instead. She liked to visit the village’s shrine of the Virgin Mary and she prayed a lot. Her friends teased her about going to church so much, but Joan didn’t mind. Even as a girl, Joan decided to do whatever she thought she should without worrying about other people’s opinions.

The simple life Joan had as a farmer’s daughter changed in 1425 when some English foot soldiers and their allies, the Burgundians, attacked her village. Joan’s family was spared, but much of the village was set on fire. Domremy lay in an area of France that both the English and French wanted to control. At the time, the English were winning most of the skirmishes while the French Dauphin [heir to throne] Charles was pushed aside.

Soon after the raid, Joan started to hear voices that she believed came from Catholic saints. She said when she first heard the voices, she “was terrified.” At first, St. Michael told her only to be good and pray. Eventually, however, St. Catherine and St. Margaret also spoke to her and they told her to do something medieval women never did. They said that she must “go to succor [help] the King of France” by “raising a siege.” She protested that she was only a girl who knew nothing about warfare, but the voices insisted. Determined to listen to God’s will and help her country, Joan decided to visit her local lord. She needed to convince him to give her soldiers so she could plan her siege and restore the French king to power.

George Washington and the American Press

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As we prepare to celebrate President’s Day and George Washington’s Birthday, it’s tempting to think of our first president as an icon who was beloved by the American people at all times. As the victorious general in the American Revolution and the first president, much of the public admired Washington. Like all presidents who came after him, however, even George Washington could not escape criticism in the press.

In the late eighteenth century, newspapers didn’t claim to stick to the facts or be objective. One particular paper, the National Gazette, criticized President Washington throughout his presidency. Every time Washington threw a birthday party for himself, the Gazette complained about it. After his sixty-first birthday, the Gazette stated, “who will deny, that the celebrating of birth days is not a striking feature of royalty? We hear of no such thing during the republic of Rome.” Perhaps the Gazette failed to realize that most people in ancient Rome did not live to be sixty-one. Anyway, the paper was determined to label Washington as wishing to act as a king—an idea that horrified revolutionaries who had just escaped the rule of the King of England.

Another paper, the Aurora, published rumors about Washington’s disloyalty to America when he served as General of the Army. The letters portrayed him as a “lukewarm patriot”, which was untrue. Even when the army suffered from bad weather or defeat in battle, Washington was determined to defeat the British. The paper did not bother to check the source of the letters as might be expected today. Instead the paper’s owner printed what he liked, and he liked to criticize Washington.

The usually mild-mannered Washington lost his temper with these attacks on his character. According to Thomas Jefferson, he once swore at an article in the Aurora, something he rarely did in front of others. Even before becoming president, Washington had never been a fan of the press. As a general he complained that reporters hurt the American cause by revealing too much information. As president, he publicly pretended not care what the press said, though in letters to friends he wrote that he was tired of being attacked “by a set of infamous scribblers.” Personal attacks by his countrymen hurt him in a way that no enemy ever had.

Some historians claim that Washington retired from the presidency after two terms to show the press that he did not want to become king, though other reasons like ill health also played a role. Still, by retiring to his plantation, Washington could finally silence critics who wanted to portray him as a man obsessed with power. Now the press would have to turn its wrath on another president.

The Customs of Valentine’s Day: Sending Valentines

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If your school has a Valentine’s Day party, you may be looking forward to sharing valentines with your classmates next week. Or maybe you’re planning to give a special valentine to a boy or girl you really like. Whoever you send your valentines to this year, you probably haven’t heard the history of Valentine’s Day cards.

The Duke of Orleans, a French nobleman who was captured by the British during a war, wrote the first valentine in 1415. He missed his wife very much and sent her love letters during his captivity. He filled his letters with poems that had rhyming verses.

The concept of sending similar letters caught on as more people learned to read and write. By the 1800s, the handmade Valentine’s Day card became popular in Britain. Many of the valentines made during the reign of Queen Victoria, known as Victorian valentines, had fancy ribbons and lace on them. At this stage, the cards were still made on single sheets of paper. The British postal service was always busy on Valentine’s Day delivering handmade cards.

In America, Valentine’s Day was not popular right away. Part of the reason was that few women came to the colonies in the early days so men had no sweethearts who expected cards. By the mid-1700s, some Americans exchanged handmade Valentine’s Day cards. Though not as sophisticated as British valentines, colonists found clever ways to make cards attractive. For example, women might use their sewing needles to poke tiny holes around a romantic verse, creating a pinprick border. If someone couldn’t write poetry, they could still send valentines thanks to British imported booklets that offered stumped lovers the verses they needed for a card.

In the mid-1800s, creating Valentine’s Day cards became a commercial business. Esther Howland designed the first commercial valentines in the U.S. Although businesswomen were rare in the 1800s, Esther set up her own workspace and sold valentines in her father’s stationary store. She used fine materials like lace and embossed paper.

Today sending valentines is still very popular, and people can choose from a wide variety of romantic, funny, or sweet cards to send to sweethearts or friends. In fact, in the U.S. Valentine’s Day is second only to Christmas in greeting card sales.Machine-made valentines appeared around 1880. Though the cards were cheaper they were also not as personal as early valentines. By the 1900s, valentines were often hinged so they could stand and be displayed. Some had moveable parts. For example,  one card showed a cherubic girl whose eyes moved with the pull of a tab.

Wife of the Pharaoh: The Role of Ancient Egyptian Queens

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The pharaohs decided how much we know about their queens because men commissioned the building of monuments like temples and tombs. Unfortunately, most wives did not have much written about them. Yet the Egyptians left us with a blueprint for the perfect Egyptian queen in the story of their goddess Isis and her husband Osiris. After her husband’s brother killed Osiris so he could steal the throne of Egypt, Isis searched for Osiris’ body. She brought him back to life long enough so they could have a son named Horus. Isis then protected her son from her jealous brother-in-law until he was old enough to reign as pharaoh.

Like Isis, Egyptian queens were supposed to support their husbands and bear children. Yet in times of crisis, they could be called upon to act on behalf of their husband or son. Some queens ruled their country temporarily while their husbands were away on military campaigns. Others stepped in as Queen Regent for a son who inherited the throne at a young age. Mainly, however, a queen’s role was defined by her relationship with the king.

Following the tradition of Isis and Osiris, all pharaohs were expected to marry.  Pharaohs married wives that were chosen for them, but there is no record of how they were picked. Many came from the royal family so the king would have a wife who was trained to help in a crisis and who was supposedly trustworthy. Queens like Nefertiti and others were born commoners, however, so the idea of a non-royal wife for a pharaoh was apparently acceptable. Perhaps commoners received acceptance because in the story of Isis and Osiris, relatives were not always loyal.

In ancient Egypt, the word queen is translated as King’s Wife. Yet Egyptian pharaohs were polygamous, meaning they had more than one wife. Polygamy demonstrated the wealth of the pharaoh and provided insurance that he would have an heir. Only one wife, known as the King’s Great Wife, would be featured in official records. She hoped to earn the title King’s Mother by giving birth to a son who would become pharaoh. If she did not accomplish this, another lesser wife might receive the title.

While she lived, however, the King’s Great Wife served as the embodiment of Isis—the perfect complement to her husband who was thought to be half god and half human. Together, she and the king would serve the gods and rule their people, keeping order in their kingdom.

Future First Lady: Martha Washington’s Childhood

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Like most kids, I learned a lot about George Washington in school. He was celebrated as an American hero and someone whose childhood we should all admire. I knew almost nothing about Martha Washington, except that she was a supportive wife to America’s first president.

Of course, when she was born, Martha had a different last name. The first born of nine children, she was named Martha Dandridge, but her family nicknamed her Patsy. She grew up on a plantation near Williamsburg, Virginia. In the 1700s, the word plantation meant property that was devoted to a single crop, not necessarily thousands of acres of land with a mansion. In Virginia, plantation owners like Martha’s father grew tobacco. Martha did not grow up in a fancy home, but it had two stories, two chimneys, and comfortably housed all the Dandridge children.

With a total of eight siblings, Martha learned to care for children at an early age. Her father John Dandridge had slaves who worked in the fields, but could not afford household slaves. As a result, Martha’s mother taught her how to do every necessary chore. With her mother Frances by her side, Martha learned to kill and cook chickens and other fowl, make clothes and bed linens, wash clothes in a big boiling kettle without burning them, and how to preserve food and make home remedies for illnesses. Based on later accounts of her work stitching clothes for U.S. army soldiers, she learned her lessons well.

In addition to chores, Martha learned the skills she needed to be a success in Virginia society. Dancing was an especially important social skill. Dancing masters traveled to various towns to teach young people, boys and girls, to dance. Learning to dance was a break from chores, but some of the dances had such complex steps that practicing them seemed like a chore. Conversation was also considered an art, and Martha took to it easily. She genuinely enjoyed other people and cared about them—an asset that served her well as First Lady.

Although Martha did not have the same academic education as some young women from New England, she learned to read and enjoyed books all her life. Her grammar and spelling were inconsistent, but she got her point across in letters. She did better in math, which came in handy when she had to manage the business accounts of her first husband, Daniel Custis.

At seventeen, Martha was considered an adult, and she became secretly engaged to Daniel Custis, a wealthy man twenty years older than Martha.  Though it seems strange to us that a young girl would marry someone so much older, young girls often got engaged to older men in the 1700s. Martha and Daniel also genuinely liked each other, which was probably less common.

According to a family account, even as a teenager Martha “excelled in personal charms, which with pleasing manners, and a general amiability of demeanor, caused her to be distinguished amid the fair ones who usually assembled at the court of Williamsburg.” She was not beautiful, but she was pretty and good-natured and conversed easily with everyone. Her charm also won over her future father-in-law John Custis, who originally objected to the match.

After she became a wife, mother, and then a widow, she was courted by George Washington.

Buffalo Bill Cody’s Steer Roping Cowgirl

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Though other women like Annie Oakley were called cowgirls, young Lucille Mulhall really lived up to the name by roping steers. As a child Lucille learned to ride a horse along with her brother Logan. After Logan’s death, Lucille became her father’s assistant on the family’s Oklahoma ranch. She learned to train horses, shoot, and brand cattle.

Despite all her talents, she excelled most in steer roping. Steer roping required her to ride her horse near a herd of cattle, and throw her lasso over the animal’s horns so the steer lay on its back. Then Lucille jumped off her horse and tied the feet of the steer together.

Luckily for Lucille, in the late 1890s and early 1900s the American West was full of opportunities for her to display her talent. Wild West shows were popular and performers traveled the country. Most performers were men, but Lucille’s father recognized that his daughter was unique. In 1899, Zack Mulhall created The Congress of Rough Riders and Ropers Wild West Show. Though Lucille was only a teenager, she and her horse Governor were the stars of the show.

Outside the show ring, the team of Lucille and Governor competed against some of the toughest cowboys. In 1903, Lucille set the world record by roping a steer in 30 seconds. At seventeen, she was the only female steer roper in the world.

Unlike other cowgirls, Lucille was considered ladylike and beautiful. She never wore pants; she always wore long skirts. Will Rogers, who rode in the Mulhall show, said Lucille “never dressed like the Cowgirl you know today, no loud colors, no short leather skirts and great big hat…her skirt was divided, but long, away down over her patent leather boot straps…a grey broadcloth, small stiff-brim hat and always a white silk shirt waist.” Her ladylike qualities attracted the attention of Buffalo Bill Cody, who had his own show. He tried to convince her to tour with him, but Lucille continued to work for her father.

Her decision to dress like a lady did not mean she was weaker than other cowgirls, however. Steer roping was dangerous, but Lucille showed determination and strength in times of adversity. One reporter asked her, “Aren’t you afraid your horse will slip and fall?” She replied, “Oh, I expect that. I’m not afraid of getting hurt.” Sometimes Lucille did get hurt by hurting a leg or bruising a rib, but she always returned to the work she loved.

She continued to perform when she grew up. In 1916 she finally joined Buffalo Bill Cody’s Farewell Tour Program. This was Cody’s first chance to work with Lucille, and even though her career was ending he still thought she was one of the greatest women riders he ever had in his show.

Growing up Maya: The Roles of Boys and Girls in Mayan Culture

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Most people today remember the ancient Maya for their architecture, their skilled workers, or their predictions about the future. Yet the Maya should also be known for their love of children. Although family members did not give baby showers in Mayan culture, parents eagerly anticipated the birth of their children. Mothers prayed to the gods for numerous healthy babies. If the mother delivered a boy, his name was determined by the Mayan calendar. For example, if a child was born on the seventh day of the month and the name of the day was Ahau, he was named Seven Ahau. Historians don’t know how girls received their names.

Both girls and boys received a lot of affection from their parents and extended family members. Once they were around the age of five, however, they had to help with chores. Like many other ancient societies, Maya children’s tasks were determined by their gender.

Most families lived on farms, so boys helped their fathers plant maize–another name for corn. They also learned to fish, hunt, and make their own tools. A farmer’s son would be expected to work for the Mayan king constructing temples or other buildings when he grew up.

No public schools existed for Maya boys or girls; however, wealthy families sometimes sent their sons to live with members of the priesthood so he would learn how to serve the gods as a priest someday. Boys could inherit their father’s occupations, which meant that family members often passed down their knowledge to the next generation. For elite families, this meant that boys trained to become scribes—one of the few professions that required literacy—or artisans.

Girls had fewer opportunities to work outside the home than boys. They learned to weave cloth from cotton and wool and to cook food. They made clothes for the family (loincloths for the men, skirts for themselves) and cooked tortillas from maize and dough. When the tortillas were cooked, they were stuffed with beans or meat. Although girls did much of their work at home, they spent a lot of time at the local market. Women and girls brought homemade food and dyed clothing to the market to sell. Here, girls learned to trade and barter by watching their elders.

Job opportunities for Maya girls were limited, though some became midwives or matchmakers. Historical evidence indicates that some Maya women learned to read and write and a few may have been scribes.

Discoveries in King Tut’s Tomb

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On January 3, 1924, Howard Carter discovered the sarcophagus [a coffin made of stone] of the Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamen. He had uncovered the pharaoh’s tomb two years before, but there were many different chambers inside. Carter’s team cleared these chambers, stuffed with furniture, clothing, and other items, before they entered the actual burial chamber. In the first few chambers, Carter said he found “strange animals, statues, and gold—everywhere the glint of gold.” So many items filled the tomb that it took Carter ten years to record everything inside.

The sarcophagus was considered the most spectacular discovery of Carter’s excavation. Finding a burial chamber of an Egyptian pharaoh still intact was a rarity already in the 1920s. Tomb robbers often tore coffins open because dead Egyptian rulers wore valuable jewelry under the mummy wrappings. Fortunately, Tutankhamen’s tomb remained hidden by debris from the excavation of another nearby tomb. Robbers didn’t have the chance to get this far into the tomb.

 

Howard Carter opening mummy of King Tut, 1925

Howard Carter opening mummy of King Tut

 

Inside the stone sarcophagus lay three smaller coffins. The first two were wooden but covered in gold. The final coffin, made of solid gold, held the body of the pharaoh. Its worth is estimated at over a million dollars. Inside this coffin lay the body of the pharaoh with his face covered in the now famous golden mask. Carter wrote, “The contents [of the coffin] were completely covered with linen shrouds. As the last shroud was removed a gasp of wonderment escaped our lips, so gorgeous was the sight that met our eyes; a golden effigy of the boy-king of most magnificent workmanship.”

Unfortunately, Tutankhamen’s body was in poor condition because of the ancient practice of pouring perfumes and oils over the mummy during the embalming process. Over time, the oils caused the pharaoh’s body to stick to the inside of the coffin. The golden mask covering King Tut’s face was also glued down; however, once Carter freed the mask with hot knives, he discovered that the mask had protected the pharaoh’s face.

Thanks to this preservation, later scientists successfully performed an autopsy. The test suggested that the pharaoh died at age eighteen, perhaps of a head injury. Exactly how he died is still debated among Egyptologists. Theories range from murder to an accidental wound which doctors at the time could not heal.